International Journal of Pure and Applied Zoology ISSN (Print) : 2320-9577 Vol. 1, Issue 3, pp: 205-208, 2013
2013 Rishan Publications http://www.ijpaz.com Research Article IS DICLOFENAC STILL A THREAT TO GYPS VULTURE? A CASE FROM EASTERN NEPAL AND ADJOINING AREAS IN INDIA Rabindra Kumar Mandal1 and Kapil Kishor Khadka2*
1Department of Poultry Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, USA.
*2Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, USA
Article History: Received 15th July 2013; Revised form 29th July 2013; Accepted 6th August 2013; Published online 10th August 2013 ABSTRACT
Diclofenac, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), used among livestock have been found to have a detrimental effect on scavengers including Gyps vultures contributing to a dramatic decline of the population in the Indian subcontinent. In an attempt to assess the status of different NSAIDs including diclofenac use and trade, the current study was conducted in eastern part of Nepal and adjoining areas in India. Despite its ban in use and trade, diclofenac was found to be in use in veterinary practices and was illegally kept for sale. The finding warrants an immediate concern, monitoring, awareness, and actions to curb the use and trade of this environmental poison for the recovery and conservation of Gyps vultures.
Keywords: NSAIDs, meloxicam, diclofenac, vulture, conservation. INTRODUCTION Gyps bengalensis in India (Gilbert et al., 2002). Diclofenac is associated with renal failure and
Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
subsequent death of these birds (Oaks et al.,
2004). This has contributed to a dramatic
therapeutic agents and have anti-inflammatory,
analgesic and antipyretic effect. Administered
(G. bengalensis, G. indicus, and G. tenuirostris)
orally and/or via injection, NSAIDs are primarily
of these raptors in the Indian subcontinent.
used to control post-operative pain, arthritis, joint
Owing to this catastrophic decline, these species
pain, and inflammatory oedema. The downside is
now appear in critically endangered list by
that these drugs have certain side effects like
Birdlife International (Birdlife International,
gastrointestinal disturbances, renal disturbances
2001). Moreover, habitat loss, food scarcity,
and skin reactions such as rashes, urticaria and
disease, pesticides, environmental contamination,
photosensitivity for examples (Roy, 2004).
poisoning, calcium deficiency, nest predators,
Diclofenac, a non steroid anti-inflammatory
hunting, and aircraft strikes have also contributed
drug, is widely used for a variety of painful and
to the decline of the birds (Prakash, 1999 and
inflammatory conditions in livestock in the
Indian subcontinent. Indiscriminate use of
potentially harmful NSAIDs and consumption of
Administration (DDA) announced a ban on the
diclofenac treated carcasses by Gyps vultures
manufacture and import of diclofenac in Nepal in
have been found to be a primary cause of their
June 2006 as a response to the fatal effect of the
population decline in Asia (Watson et al., 2004;
drug. In the same announcement, the DDA also
Green et al., 2004; Oaks et al., 2004 and Shultz
circulated information to all the country’s
et al., 2004). For example, a population crash of
pharmaceutical manufacturers to produce an
more than 95% starting in 1990s was noted in
alternative drug meloxicam. NSAID meloxicam
*Corresponding author e-mail: kkkhadka@email.uark.edu
Rabindra Kumar Mandal and Kapil Kishor Khadka J. Pure Appl. Zool., 1(3): 205-208, 2013
has been found as a safe alternative to diclofenac
their availability, and price were prepared and
(Cuthbert et al., 2006) and is considered
asked to the veterinary shopkeepers. Moreover,
harmless for Gyps vulture (Swan et al., 2006 and
respondents were asked about their attitude
Swarup et al., 2006). Ban on diclofenac use has
towards the current status of diclofenac use in
indeed been found to reduce the mortality of
veterinary practice and the level of awareness on
these birds and, thus, has provided positive sign
of recovery (Aryal, 2010 and Ramakrishnan et al., 2010). Thus, complete ban on use of
diclofenac appears to be a paramount (if not silver-bullet) step for Gyps vultures’ recovery.
A total of 50 veterinary shops in Nepal and a
This, however, requires monitoring of the
total of 15 shops in adjoining area in India were
population and NSAIDs sale by veterinary shop
surveyed during the first quarter of 2012. Nine
in the areas of concern. The present study aims to
different types of NSAIDs were found to be in
assess the status of NSAIDs sale and use in
use and kept for sale in the veterinary shops of
eastern part of Nepal and adjoining border
Eastern Nepal and adjoining border areas in India
markets in India. It is expected that the findings
(Table 1). Surprisingly, NSAID diclofenac which
will be an invaluable source and gateway for
was considered to be banned and expected not to
further steps to Gyps vulture conservation plan.
be found also appeared in the list. Of notable was the price of diclofenac compared to the other
MATERIALS AND METHODS
NSAIDs. A 30-ml vial of diclofenac was found to be cheaper compared to 30-ml of vials of the
The study was conducted in the major markets of
other NSAIDs. Meloxicam, diclofenac, and
Eastern Nepal (Saptari, Sunsari, Morang) and
nimesulide contributed significant portion of
adjoining border markets (Fulkaha, Ghurna,
NSAIDs in the studied shops (Figure 1). All the
veterinary practitioners, however, were found to
Questionnaires on different types of NSAIDs,
be aware of the detrimental effect of diclofenac.
Table 1. NSAIDs found in veterinary practices in the study area.
INR refers to Indian currency. *=No. of veterinary shops in India. **= Is an antispasmodic drug.
Rabindra Kumar Mandal and Kapil Kishor Khadka J. Pure Appl. Zool., 1(3): 205-208, 2013
Figure 1. Major NSAIDs in veterinary practice in the study area. DISCUSSION
NSAIDs to ascertain that the recovery of Gyps vulture is hindered by diclofenac use in the area
Despite a ban on diclofenac use and trade, it still
and that the other NSAIDs used are safe to the
appears to be in indiscriminate use among
veterinary practices in the area as indicated by their availability in the veterinary shops. This,
Conservation of Gyps vultures is crucial for
however, could be due to low prices of the drug
ecological, economic, cultural, and religious
compared to other NSAIDs. Such a continued
significance (Houston and Cooper, 1975; Schuz
use and sell of diclofenac despite its known
and Konig, 1983 and World Health Organization,
negative effects could potentially be detrimental
1998), and thus their losses have important
to Gyps vultures’ recovery. Thus, it warrants an
immediate concern and effective vigilance on the trade of such drugs. Also, the local people and
CONCLUSION
existing shops need to be made aware of the
We suggest for more rigorous steps and actions
fatality of diclofenac (Oaks et al., 2004 and
to make the available food to these lords of sky
Shultz et. al., 2004). Although the veterinary
free of harmful NSAIDs for their potential
practitioners are aware of the negative impacts of
recovery and consequent ecosystem integrity.
the drug, individual local people still need to be
We believe that only ban on these harmful
made responsive. Availability of meloxicam in
NSAIDs (diclofenac for example) is not a silver-
almost all the shops, however, provides a hook
bullet to the threats and panacea to the Gyps
for hope of its use as a substitute of diclofenac in
population recovery. Nonetheless, complete
the future. This potentially requires some
stoppage on use of such veterinary drug is
arguably of utmost importance. Besides, a
thorough and long term study needs to be
alternative (Cuthbert et al., 2006). Besides, local
conducted to uncover the prime causal factor for
governing bodies and conservation authorities
Gyps vultures’ population decline and pragmatic
should monitor the veterinary shops regularly.
High mortality rates and breeding failure has
resulted to population crash of Gyps vulture in
CONFLICT OF INTERESTS
the Indian subcontinent which likely lead to
The author declares that there is no conflict of
extinction if the underlying threats are not
addressed (Birdlife International, 2001 and Virani et al., 2001). Since veterinary diclofenac residues is believed to be a prime cause of
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
mortality of Gyps vultures (Oaks et al., 2004),
We would like to thank Dr. Hem Sagar Baral for
use and trade of these NSAIDs needs to be stopped immediately. Also, the carcasses should
his guidance and Himalayan Nature for funding
be frequently examined for diclofenac and other
Rabindra Kumar Mandal and Kapil Kishor Khadka J. Pure Appl. Zool., 1(3): 205-208, 2013
REFERENCES
diclofenac the only culprit for declining population of Gyps vultures in the Moyar
Aryal, M., 2010. Slowly, vulture numbers picking
Valley. Curr. Sc., 99: 1645-1646.
up. http://ipsnews.net Downloaded 14 June 2013.
Roy, B.K., 2004. Veterinary Pharmacology and
Toxicology. Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi,
Birdlife International. 2001. Threatened birds of
Asia: the Bird Life International red data book. Bird Life International, Cambridge, United
Schuz, E. and Konig, C., 1983. Old World vultures
Cuthbert, R., Green, R.E., Ranade, S., Saravanan,
Prakash, V., 2006. Rapid population diclines
of Egyptian Vulture Neophron prercnopterus
Shultz, S., Baral, H.S., Charman, S., Cunningham,
and Red-headed vulture Sarcogyps calvus in
A.A., Das, D., Ghalsasi, D.R., Goudar, M.S.
India. Anim. Conserv., 9: 349-354.
and Prakash, V., 2004. Diclofenac poisoning is
Gilbert, M., Virani, M. Z., Watson, R. T., Oaks, J.
widespread in declining vulture populations
L., Benson, P. C., Khan, A. A., Ahmed, S.,
across the Indian subcontinent. Proc. R. Soc. B,
Chaudhry, J., Arshad, M., Mahmood, S. and
Shah, Q. A., 2002. Breeding and mortality of
Swan,G.E., Naidoo, V., Cuthbert, R., Green, R.E.,
Pain, D.J., Swarup, D., Prakash, V., Taggart,
bengalensis in Punjab Province, Pakistan. Bird
Diekmann, M., Killian, E., Meharg, A., Patra,
Green, R.E., Newton, J., Shultz, S., Cunningham,
A. A., Gilbert, M., Pain, D.J. and Prakash, V.,
Removing the threat of diclofenac to critically
2004. Diclofenac poisoning as a cause of
endangered Asian Vultures. PLoS Biol., 4: 1–8.
Vulture population declines across the Indian Subcontinent. J. Appl. Ecol., 41:793-800.
Swarup, D., Patra, R.C., Prakash, V., Cuthbert, R.,
Das, D., Avari, P., Pain, D.J., Green, R.E.,
Sharma, A.K., Saini, M., Das, D., Taggart, M.,
digestive tract of the whitebacked griffon
vulture and its role in disease transmission
among wild ungultates. J. Wildl. Dis., 1: 306-
scavenging birds in India. Anim. Conserv., 10:
Naidoo, V., Wolter, K., Cromarty, D., Diekmann,
Virani, M., Gilbert, M., Watson, R., Oaks, L.,
M., Duncan, N., Meharg, A.A., Taggart, M. A.,
Venter, L. and Cuthbert, R., 2010. Toxicity of
S., 2001. Asian vulture crisis project: field
non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs to Gyps
results from Pakistan and Nepal for the 2000–
vultures: a new threat from ketoprofen. Biol.
Oaks, J.L., Gilbert, M., Virani, M.Z., Waston R.T.,
Meteyer, C.V., Rideout, B.A., Shiva Prasad,
H.L., Ahmed, S., Chaudhry, M.J.I., Ashrad,
congress on raptors. Estación Biológica
M., Mahmood, S., Ali, A. and Khan, A.A.,
Donaña, Raptor Research Foundation, Seville.
2004. Diclofenac residue as the cause of
Watson, R.T., Gilbert, M., Oaks, J.L. and Virani,
vulture population decline in Pakistan. Nature,
M., 2004. The collapse of vulture populations
in South Asia. Biodiversity, 5: 3-7.
Prakash, V., 1999. Status of vultures in Keoladeo
National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan, with
Wells, D.R., 1999. The birds of the Thai-Malay
special reference to population crash in Gyps
Peninsula. 1. Non-passerines. Academic Press,
species. J. Bombay Nat. Hist.Soc., 96: 365–
World Health Organization, 1998. World survey
for rabies no. 34 for the year 1998. WHO,
Saravanan, M. and Arivazhagan, C., 2010. Is
nit 6K, 6th Floor Fort Palm Spring For t Bonifacio, Global City,Taguig City, Metro Manila 1634 Ph one: (632) 887 6407, TeleFax: (632) 887 5457 Two, Global City,Taguig City, Metro Manila 1634 Phone: (632) 887 6407, TeleFax: (632) 887 5457 Twitter: @itradeph
Date: 4th November 2009 Two year ban for Spalding gangmaster A Lincolnshire gangmaster has had his licence revoked after misleading the GLA and breaching a variety of licensing standards including illegal deductions, and breaching minimum wage requirements. Mr Nuno Moitinho, the Director of Soma Recruitment Ltd has also been declared as „not fit and proper‟ to hold a GLA lic